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# Boot Loader
## [Summary](#summary)
mcuboot comprises two packages:
* The bootutil library (boot/bootutil)
* The boot application (each port has its own at boot/<port>)
The bootutil library performs most of the functions of a boot loader. In
particular, the piece that is missing is the final step of actually jumping to
the main image. This last step is instead implemented by the boot application.
Boot loader functionality is separated in this manner to enable unit testing of
the boot loader. A library can be unit tested, but an application can't.
Therefore, functionality is delegated to the bootutil library when possible.
## [Limitations](#limitations)
The boot loader currently only supports images with the following
characteristics:
* Built to run from flash.
* Built to run from a fixed location (i.e., not position-independent).
## [Image Format](#image-format)
The following definitions describe the image format.
``` c
#define IMAGE_MAGIC 0x96f3b83d
#define IMAGE_HEADER_SIZE 32
struct image_version {
uint8_t iv_major;
uint8_t iv_minor;
uint16_t iv_revision;
uint32_t iv_build_num;
};
/** Image header. All fields are in little endian byte order. */
struct image_header {
uint32_t ih_magic;
uint32_t ih_load_addr;
uint16_t ih_hdr_size; /* Size of image header (bytes). */
uint16_t ih_protect_tlv_size; /* Size of protected TLV area (bytes). */
uint32_t ih_img_size; /* Does not include header. */
uint32_t ih_flags; /* IMAGE_F_[...]. */
struct image_version ih_ver;
uint32_t _pad1;
};
#define IMAGE_TLV_INFO_MAGIC 0x6907
#define IMAGE_TLV_PROT_INFO_MAGIC 0x6908
/** Image TLV header. All fields in little endian. */
struct image_tlv_info {
uint16_t it_magic;
uint16_t it_tlv_tot; /* size of TLV area (including tlv_info header) */
};
/** Image trailer TLV format. All fields in little endian. */
struct image_tlv {
uint8_t it_type; /* IMAGE_TLV_[...]. */
uint8_t _pad;
uint16_t it_len; /* Data length (not including TLV header). */
};
/*
* Image header flags.
*/
#define IMAGE_F_PIC 0x00000001 /* Not supported. */
#define IMAGE_F_NON_BOOTABLE 0x00000010 /* Split image app. */
#define IMAGE_F_RAM_LOAD 0x00000020
/*
* Image trailer TLV types.
*/
#define IMAGE_TLV_KEYHASH 0x01 /* hash of the public key */
#define IMAGE_TLV_SHA256 0x10 /* SHA256 of image hdr and body */
#define IMAGE_TLV_RSA2048_PSS 0x20 /* RSA2048 of hash output */
#define IMAGE_TLV_ECDSA224 0x21 /* ECDSA of hash output */
#define IMAGE_TLV_ECDSA256 0x22 /* ECDSA of hash output */
#define IMAGE_TLV_RSA3072_PSS 0x23 /* RSA3072 of hash output */
#define IMAGE_TLV_ED25519 0x24 /* ED25519 of hash output */
#define IMAGE_TLV_ENC_RSA2048 0x30 /* Key encrypted with RSA-OAEP-2048 */
#define IMAGE_TLV_ENC_KW128 0x31 /* Key encrypted with AES-KW-128 */
#define IMAGE_TLV_ENC_EC256 0x32 /* Key encrypted with ECIES-P256 */
#define IMAGE_TLV_ENC_X25519 0x33 /* Key encrypted with ECIES-X25519 */
#define IMAGE_TLV_DEPENDENCY 0x40 /* Image depends on other image */
#define IMAGE_TLV_SEC_CNT 0x50 /* security counter */
```
Optional type-length-value records (TLVs) containing image metadata are placed
after the end of the image.
The `ih_protect_tlv_size` field indicates the length of the protected TLV area.
If protected TLVs are present then a TLV info header with magic equal to
`IMAGE_TLV_PROT_INFO_MAGIC` must be present and the protected TLVs (plus the
info header itself) have to be included in the hash calculation. Otherwise the
hash is only calculated over the image header and the image itself. In this
case the value of the `ih_protect_tlv_size` field is 0.
The `ih_hdr_size` field indicates the length of the header, and therefore the
offset of the image itself. This field provides for backwards compatibility in
case of changes to the format of the image header.
## [Flash Map](#flash-map)
A device's flash is partitioned according to its _flash map_. At a high
level, the flash map maps numeric IDs to _flash areas_. A flash area is a
region of disk with the following properties:
1. An area can be fully erased without affecting any other areas.
2. A write to one area does not restrict writes to other areas.
The boot loader uses the following flash area IDs:
```c
/* Independent from multiple image boot */
#define FLASH_AREA_BOOTLOADER 0
#define FLASH_AREA_IMAGE_SCRATCH 3
```
```c
/* If the boot loader is working with the first image */
#define FLASH_AREA_IMAGE_PRIMARY 1
#define FLASH_AREA_IMAGE_SECONDARY 2
```
```c
/* If the boot loader is working with the second image */
#define FLASH_AREA_IMAGE_PRIMARY 5
#define FLASH_AREA_IMAGE_SECONDARY 6
```
The bootloader area contains the bootloader image itself. The other areas are
described in subsequent sections. The flash could contain multiple executable
images therefore the flash area IDs of primary and secondary areas are mapped
based on the number of the active image (on which the bootloader is currently
working).
## [Image Slots](#image-slots)
A portion of the flash memory can be partitioned into multiple image areas, each
contains two image slots: a primary slot and a secondary slot.
Normally, the boot loader will only run an image from the primary slot, so
images must be built such that they can run from that fixed location in flash
(the exception to this is the [direct-xip](#direct-xip) and the
[ram-load](#ram-load) upgrade mode). If the boot loader needs to run the
image resident in the secondary slot, it must copy its contents into the primary
slot before doing so, either by swapping the two images or by overwriting the
contents of the primary slot. The bootloader supports either swap- or
overwrite-based image upgrades, but must be configured at build time to choose
one of these two strategies.
In addition to the slots of image areas, the boot loader requires a scratch
area to allow for reliable image swapping. The scratch area must have a size
that is enough to store at least the largest sector that is going to be swapped.
Many devices have small equally sized flash sectors, eg 4K, while others have
variable sized sectors where the largest sectors might be 128K or 256K, so the
scratch must be big enough to store that. The scratch is only ever used when
swapping firmware, which means only when doing an upgrade. Given that, the main
reason for using a larger size for the scratch is that flash wear will be more
evenly distributed, because a single sector would be written twice the number of
times than using two sectors, for example. To evaluate the ideal size of the
scratch for your use case the following parameters are relevant:
* the ratio of image size / scratch size
* the number of erase cycles supported by the flash hardware
The image size is used (instead of slot size) because only the slot's sectors
that are actually used for storing the image are copied. The image/scratch ratio
is the number of times the scratch will be erased on every upgrade. The number
of erase cycles divided by the image/scratch ratio will give you the number of
times an upgrade can be performed before the device goes out of spec.
```
num_upgrades = number_of_erase_cycles / (image_size / scratch_size)
```
Let's assume, for example, a device with 10000 erase cycles, an image size of
150K and a scratch of 4K (usual minimum size of 4K sector devices). This would
result in a total of:
`10000 / (150 / 4) ~ 267`
Increasing the scratch to 16K would give us:
`10000 / (150 / 16) ~ 1067`
There is no *best* ratio, as the right size is use-case dependent. Factors to
consider include the number of times a device will be upgraded both in the field
and during development, as well as any desired safety margin on the
manufacturer's specified number of erase cycles. In general, using a ratio that
allows hundreds to thousands of field upgrades in production is recommended.
### [Equal slots (direct-xip)](#direct-xip)
When the direct-xip mode is enabled the active image flag is "moved" between the
slots during image upgrade and in contrast to the above, the bootloader can
run an image directly from either the primary or the secondary slot (without
having to move/copy it into the primary slot). Therefore the image update
client, which downloads the new images must be aware, which slot contains the
active image and which acts as a staging area and it is responsible for loading
the proper images into the proper slot. All this requires that the images be
built to be executed from the corresponding slot. At boot time the bootloader
first looks for images in the slots and then inspects the version numbers in the
image headers. It selects the newest image (with the highest version number) and
then checks its validity (integrity check, signature verification etc.). If the
image is invalid MCUboot erases its memory slot and starts to validate the other
image. After a successful validation of the selected image the bootloader
chain-loads it.
An additional "revert" mechanism is also supported. For more information, please
read the [corresponding section](#direct-xip-revert).
Handling the primary and secondary slots as equals has its drawbacks. Since the
images are not moved between the slots, the on-the-fly image
encryption/decryption can't be supported (it only applies to storing the image
in an external flash on the device, the transport of encrypted image data is
still feasible).
The overwrite and the direct-xip upgrade strategies are substantially simpler to
implement than the image swapping strategy, especially since the bootloader must
work properly even when it is reset during the middle of an image swap. For this
reason, the rest of the document describes its behavior when configured to swap
images during an upgrade.
### [RAM Loading](#ram-load)
In ram-load mode the slots are equal. Like the direct-xip mode, this mode
also selects the newest image by reading the image version numbers in the image
headers. But instead of executing it in place, the newest image is copied to the
RAM for execution. The load address, the location in RAM where the image is
copied to, is stored in the image header. The ram-load upgrade mode can be
useful when there is no internal flash in the SoC, but there is a big enough
internal RAM to hold the images. Usually in this case the images are stored
in an external storage device. Execution from external storage has some
drawbacks (lower execution speed, image is exposed to attacks) therefore the
image is always copied to the internal RAM before the authentication and
execution. Ram-load mode requires the image to be built to be executed from
the RAM address range instead of the storage device address range. If
ram-load is enabled then platform must define the following parameters:
```c
#define IMAGE_EXECUTABLE_RAM_START <area_base_addr>
#define IMAGE_EXECUTABLE_RAM_SIZE <area_size_in_bytes>
```
When ram-load is enabled, the `--load-addr <addr>` option of the `imgtool`
script must also be used when signing the images. This option set the `RAM_LOAD`
flag in the image header which indicates that the image should be loaded to the
RAM and also set the load address in the image header.
The ram-load mode currently supports only the single image boot and the image
encryption feature is not supported.
## [Boot Swap Types](#boot-swap-types)
When the device first boots under normal circumstances, there is an up-to-date
firmware image in each primary slot, which mcuboot can validate and then
chain-load. In this case, no image swaps are necessary. During device upgrades,
however, new candidate image(s) is present in the secondary slot(s), which
mcuboot must swap into the primary slot(s) before booting as discussed above.
Upgrading an old image with a new one by swapping can be a two-step process. In
this process, mcuboot performs a "test" swap of image data in flash and boots
the new image or it will be executed during operation. The new image can then
update the contents of flash at runtime to mark itself "OK", and mcuboot will
then still choose to run it during the next boot. When this happens, the swap is
made "permanent". If this doesn't happen, mcuboot will perform a "revert" swap
during the next boot by swapping the image(s) back into its original location(s)
, and attempting to boot the old image(s).
Depending on the use case, the first swap can also be made permanent directly.
In this case, mcuboot will never attempt to revert the images on the next reset.
Test swaps are supported to provide a rollback mechanism to prevent devices
from becoming "bricked" by bad firmware. If the device crashes immediately
upon booting a new (bad) image, mcuboot will revert to the old (working) image
at the next device reset, rather than booting the bad image again. This allows
device firmware to make test swaps permanent only after performing a self-test
routine.
On startup, mcuboot inspects the contents of flash to decide for each images
which of these "swap types" to perform; this decision determines how it
proceeds.
The possible swap types, and their meanings, are:
- `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_NONE`: The "usual" or "no upgrade" case; attempt to boot the
contents of the primary slot.
- `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_TEST`: Boot the contents of the secondary slot by swapping
images. Unless the swap is made permanent, revert back on the next boot.
- `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_PERM`: Permanently swap images, and boot the upgraded image
firmware.
- `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_REVERT`: A previous test swap was not made permanent;
swap back to the old image whose data are now in the secondary slot. If the
old image marks itself "OK" when it boots, the next boot will have swap type
`BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_NONE`.
- `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_FAIL`: Swap failed because image to be run is not valid.
- `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_PANIC`: Swapping encountered an unrecoverable error.
The "swap type" is a high-level representation of the outcome of the
boot. Subsequent sections describe how mcuboot determines the swap type from
the bit-level contents of flash.
### [Revert mechanism in direct-xip mode](#direct-xip-revert)
The direct-xip mode also supports a "revert" mechanism which is the equivalent
of the swap mode's "revert" swap. It can be enabled with the
MCUBOOT_DIRECT_XIP_REVERT config option and an image trailer must also be added
to the signed images (the "--pad" option of the `imgtool` script must be used).
For more information on this please read the [Image Trailer](#image-trailer)
section and the [imgtool](imgtool.md) documentation. Making the images permanent
(marking them as confirmed in advance) is also supported just like in swap mode.
The individual steps of the direct-xip mode's "revert" mechanism are the
following:
1. Select the slot which holds the newest potential image.
2. Was the image previously selected to run (during a previous boot)?
+ Yes: Did the image mark itself "OK" (was the self-test successful)?
+ Yes.
- Proceed to step 3.
+ No.
- Erase the image from the slot to prevent it from being selected
again during the next boot.
- Return to step 1 (the bootloader will attempt to select and
possibly boot the previous image if there is one).
+ No.
- Mark the image as "selected" (set the copy_done flag in the trailer).
- Proceed to step 3.
3. Proceed to image validation ...
## [Image Trailer](#image-trailer)
For the bootloader to be able to determine the current state and what actions
should be taken during the current boot operation, it uses metadata stored in
the image flash areas. While swapping, some of this metadata is temporarily
copied into and out of the scratch area.
This metadata is located at the end of the image flash areas, and is called an
image trailer. An image trailer has the following structure:
```
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
~ ~
~ Swap status (BOOT_MAX_IMG_SECTORS * min-write-size * 3) ~
~ ~
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Encryption key 0 (16 octets) [*] |
| |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Encryption key 1 (16 octets) [*] |
| |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Swap size (4 octets) |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Swap info | 0xff padding (7 octets) |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Copy done | 0xff padding (7 octets) |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Image OK | 0xff padding (7 octets) |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| MAGIC (16 octets) |
| |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
```
[*]: Only present if the encryption option is enabled (`MCUBOOT_ENC_IMAGES`).
The offset immediately following such a record represents the start of the next
flash area.
Note: "min-write-size" is a property of the flash hardware. If the hardware
allows individual bytes to be written at arbitrary addresses, then
min-write-size is 1. If the hardware only allows writes at even addresses,
then min-write-size is 2, and so on.
An image trailer contains the following fields:
1. Swap status: A series of records which records the progress of an image
swap. To swap entire images, data are swapped between the two image areas
one or more sectors at a time, like this:
- sector data in the primary slot is copied into scratch, then erased
- sector data in the secondary slot is copied into the primary slot,
then erased
- sector data in scratch is copied into the secondary slot
As it swaps images, the bootloader updates the swap status field in a way that
allows it to compute how far this swap operation has progressed for each
sector. The swap status field can thus used to resume a swap operation if the
bootloader is halted while a swap operation is ongoing and later reset. The
`BOOT_MAX_IMG_SECTORS` value is the configurable maximum number of sectors
mcuboot supports for each image; its value defaults to 128, but allows for
either decreasing this size, to limit RAM usage, or to increase it in devices
that have massive amounts of Flash or very small sized sectors and thus require
a bigger configuration to allow for the handling of all slot's sectors.
The factor of min-write-sz is due to the behavior of flash hardware. The factor
of 3 is explained below.
2. Encryption keys: key-encrypting keys (KEKs). These keys are needed for
image encryption and decryption. See the
[encrypted images](encrypted_images.md) document for more information.
3. Swap size: When beginning a new swap operation, the total size that needs
to be swapped (based on the slot with largest image + TLVs) is written to
this location for easier recovery in case of a reset while performing the
swap.
4. Swap info: A single byte which encodes the following information:
- Swap type: Stored in bits 0-3. Indicating the type of swap operation in
progress. When mcuboot resumes an interrupted swap, it uses this field to
determine the type of operation to perform. This field contains one of the
following values in the table below.
- Image number: Stored in bits 4-7. It has always 0 value at single image
boot. In case of multi image boot it indicates, which image was swapped when
interrupt happened. The same scratch area is used during in case of all
image swap operation. Therefore this field is used to determine which image
the trailer belongs to if boot status is found on scratch area when the swap
operation is resumed.
| Name | Value |
| ------------------------- | ----- |
| `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_TEST` | 2 |
| `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_PERM` | 3 |
| `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_REVERT` | 4 |
5. Copy done: A single byte indicating whether the image in this slot is
complete (0x01=done; 0xff=not done).
6. Image OK: A single byte indicating whether the image in this slot has been
confirmed as good by the user (0x01=confirmed; 0xff=not confirmed).
7. MAGIC: The following 16 bytes, written in host-byte-order:
``` c
const uint32_t boot_img_magic[4] = {
0xf395c277,
0x7fefd260,
0x0f505235,
0x8079b62c,
};
```
## [IMAGE TRAILERS](#image-trailers)
At startup, the boot loader determines the boot swap type by inspecting the
image trailers. When using the term "image trailers" what is meant is the
aggregate information provided by both image slot's trailers.
### [New swaps (non-resumes)](#new-swaps-non-resumes)
For new swaps, mcuboot must inspect a collection of fields to determine which
swap operation to perform.
The image trailers records are structured around the limitations imposed by
flash hardware. As a consequence, they do not have a very intuitive design, and
it is difficult to get a sense of the state of the device just by looking at the
image trailers. It is better to map all the possible trailer states to the swap
types described above via a set of tables. These tables are reproduced below.
Note: An important caveat about the tables described below is that they must
be evaluated in the order presented here. Lower state numbers must have a
higher priority when testing the image trailers.
```
State I
| primary slot | secondary slot |
-----------------+--------------+----------------|
magic | Any | Good |
image-ok | Any | Unset |
copy-done | Any | Any |
-----------------+--------------+----------------'
result: BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_TEST |
-------------------------------------------------'
State II
| primary slot | secondary slot |
-----------------+--------------+----------------|
magic | Any | Good |
image-ok | Any | 0x01 |
copy-done | Any | Any |
-----------------+--------------+----------------'
result: BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_PERM |
-------------------------------------------------'
State III
| primary slot | secondary slot |
-----------------+--------------+----------------|
magic | Good | Unset |
image-ok | 0xff | Any |
copy-done | 0x01 | Any |
-----------------+--------------+----------------'
result: BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_REVERT |
-------------------------------------------------'
```
Any of the above three states results in mcuboot attempting to swap images.
Otherwise, mcuboot does not attempt to swap images, resulting in one of the
other three swap types, as illustrated by State IV.
```
State IV
| primary slot | secondary slot |
-----------------+--------------+----------------|
magic | Any | Any |
image-ok | Any | Any |
copy-done | Any | Any |
-----------------+--------------+----------------'
result: BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_NONE, |
BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_FAIL, or |
BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_PANIC |
-------------------------------------------------'
```
In State IV, when no errors occur, mcuboot will attempt to boot the contents of
the primary slot directly, and the result is `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_NONE`. If the image
in the primary slot is not valid, the result is `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_FAIL`. If a
fatal error occurs during boot, the result is `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_PANIC`. If the
result is either `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_FAIL` or `BOOT_SWAP_TYPE_PANIC`, mcuboot hangs
rather than booting an invalid or compromised image.
Note: An important caveat to the above is the result when a swap is requested
and the image in the secondary slot fails to validate, due to a hashing or
signing error. This state behaves as State IV with the extra action of
marking the image in the primary slot as "OK", to prevent further attempts
to swap.
### [Resumed swaps](#resumed-swaps)
If mcuboot determines that it is resuming an interrupted swap (i.e., a reset
occurred mid-swap), it fully determines the operation to resume by reading the
`swap info` field from the active trailer and extracting the swap type from bits
0-3. The set of tables in the previous section are not necessary in the resume
case.
## [High-Level Operation](#high-level-operation)
With the terms defined, we can now explore the boot loader's operation. First,
a high-level overview of the boot process is presented. Then, the following
sections describe each step of the process in more detail.
Procedure:
1. Inspect swap status region; is an interrupted swap being resumed?
+ Yes: Complete the partial swap operation; skip to step 3.
+ No: Proceed to step 2.
2. Inspect image trailers; is a swap requested?
+ Yes:
1. Is the requested image valid (integrity and security check)?
+ Yes.
a. Perform swap operation.
b. Persist completion of swap procedure to image trailers.
c. Proceed to step 3.
+ No.
a. Erase invalid image.
b. Persist failure of swap procedure to image trailers.
c. Proceed to step 3.
+ No: Proceed to step 3.
3. Boot into image in primary slot.
### [Multiple Image Boot](#multiple-image-boot)
When the flash contains multiple executable images the boot loader's operation
is a bit more complex but similar to the previously described procedure with
one image. Every image can be updated independently therefore the flash is
partitioned further to arrange two slots for each image.
```
+--------------------+
| MCUBoot |
+--------------------+
~~~~~ <- memory might be not contiguous
+--------------------+
| Image 0 |
| primary slot |
+--------------------+
| Image 0 |
| secondary slot |
+--------------------+
~~~~~ <- memory might be not contiguous
+--------------------+
| Image N |
| primary slot |
+--------------------+
| Image N |
| secondary slot |
+--------------------+
| Scratch |
+--------------------+
```
MCUBoot is also capable of handling dependencies between images. For example
if an image needs to be reverted it might be necessary to revert another one too
(e.g. due to API incompatibilities) or simply to prevent from being updated
because of an unsatisfied dependency. Therefore all aborted swaps have to be
completed and all the swap types have to be determined for each image before
the dependency checks. Dependency handling is described in more detail in a
following section. The multiple image boot procedure is organized in loops which
iterate over all the firmware images. The high-level overview of the boot
process is presented below.
+ Loop 1. Iterate over all images
1. Inspect swap status region of current image; is an interrupted swap being
resumed?
+ Yes:
+ Review the validity of previously determined swap types
of other images.
+ Complete the partial swap operation.
+ Mark the swap type as `None`.
+ Skip to next image.
+ No: Proceed to step 2.
2. Inspect image trailers in the primary and secondary slot; is an image
swap requested?
+ Yes: Review the validity of previously determined swap types of other
images. Is the requested image valid (integrity and security
check)?
+ Yes:
+ Set the previously determined swap type for the current image.
+ Skip to next image.
+ No:
+ Erase invalid image.
+ Persist failure of swap procedure to image trailers.
+ Mark the swap type as `Fail`.
+ Skip to next image.
+ No:
+ Mark the swap type as `None`.
+ Skip to next image.
+ Loop 2. Iterate over all images
1. Does the current image depend on other image(s)?
+ Yes: Are all the image dependencies satisfied?
+ Yes: Skip to next image.
+ No:
+ Modify swap type depending on what the previous type was.
+ Restart dependency check from the first image.
+ No: Skip to next image.
+ Loop 3. Iterate over all images
1. Is an image swap requested?
+ Yes:
+ Perform image update operation.
+ Persist completion of swap procedure to image trailers.
+ Skip to next image.
+ No: Skip to next image.
+ Loop 4. Iterate over all images
1. Validate image in the primary slot (integrity and security check) or
at least do a basic sanity check to avoid booting into an empty flash
area.
+ Boot into image in the primary slot of the 0th image position\
(other image in the boot chain is started by another image).
## [Image Swapping](#image-swapping)
The boot loader swaps the contents of the two image slots for two reasons:
* User has issued a "set pending" operation; the image in the secondary slot
should be run once (state I) or repeatedly (state II), depending on
whether a permanent swap was specified.
* Test image rebooted without being confirmed; the boot loader should
revert to the original image currently in the secondary slot (state III).
If the image trailers indicates that the image in the secondary slot should be
run, the boot loader needs to copy it to the primary slot. The image currently
in the primary slot also needs to be retained in flash so that it can be used
later. Furthermore, both images need to be recoverable if the boot loader
resets in the middle of the swap operation. The two images are swapped
according to the following procedure:
1. Determine if both slots are compatible enough to have their images swapped.
To be compatible, both have to have only sectors that can fit into the
scratch area and if one of them has larger sectors than the other, it must
be able to entirely fit some rounded number of sectors from the other slot.
In the next steps we'll use the terminology "region" for the total amount of
data copied/erased because this can be any amount of sectors depending on
how many the scratch is able to fit for some swap operation.
2. Iterate the list of region indices in descending order (i.e., starting
with the greatest index); only regions that are predetermined to be part of
the image are copied; current element = "index".
+ a. Erase scratch area.
+ b. Copy secondary_slot[index] to scratch area.
- If this is the last region in the slot, scratch area has a temporary
status area initialized to store the initial state, because the
primary slot's last region will have to be erased. In this case,
only the data that was calculated to amount to the image is copied.
- Else if this is the first swapped region but not the last region in
the slot, initialize the status area in primary slot and copy the
full region contents.
- Else, copy entire region contents.
+ c. Write updated swap status (i).
+ d. Erase secondary_slot[index]
+ e. Copy primary_slot[index] to secondary_slot[index] according to amount
previosly copied at step b.
- If this is not the last region in the slot, erase the trailer in the
secondary slot, to always use the one in the primary slot.
+ f. Write updated swap status (ii).
+ g. Erase primary_slot[index].
+ h. Copy scratch area to primary_slot[index] according to amount
previously copied at step b.
- If this is the last region in the slot, the status is read from
scratch (where it was stored temporarily) and written anew in the
primary slot.
+ i. Write updated swap status (iii).
3. Persist completion of swap procedure to the primary slot image trailer.
The additional caveats in step 2f are necessary so that the secondary slot image
trailer can be written by the user at a later time. With the image trailer
unwritten, the user can test the image in the secondary slot
(i.e., transition to state I).
Note1: If the region being copied contains the last sector, then swap status is
temporarily maintained on scratch for the duration of this operation, always
using the primary slot's area otherwise.
Note2: The bootloader tries to copy only used sectors (based on largest image
installed on any of the slots), minimizing the amount of sectors copied and
reducing the amount of time required for a swap operation.
The particulars of step 3 vary depending on whether an image is being tested,
permanently used, reverted or a validation failure of the secondary slot
happened when a swap was requested:
* test:
o Write primary_slot.copy_done = 1
(swap caused the following values to be written:
primary_slot.magic = BOOT_MAGIC
secondary_slot.magic = UNSET
primary_slot.image_ok = Unset)
* permanent:
o Write primary_slot.copy_done = 1
(swap caused the following values to be written:
primary_slot.magic = BOOT_MAGIC
secondary_slot.magic = UNSET
primary_slot.image_ok = 0x01)
* revert:
o Write primary_slot.copy_done = 1
o Write primary_slot.image_ok = 1
(swap caused the following values to be written:
primary_slot.magic = BOOT_MAGIC)
* failure to validate the secondary slot:
o Write primary_slot.image_ok = 1
After completing the operations as described above the image in the primary slot
should be booted.
## [Swap Status](#swap-status)
The swap status region allows the boot loader to recover in case it restarts in
the middle of an image swap operation. The swap status region consists of a
series of single-byte records. These records are written independently, and
therefore must be padded according to the minimum write size imposed by the
flash hardware. In the below figure, a min-write-size of 1 is assumed for
simplicity. The structure of the swap status region is illustrated below. In
this figure, a min-write-size of 1 is assumed for simplicity.
```
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
|sec127,state 0 |sec127,state 1 |sec127,state 2 |sec126,state 0 |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
|sec126,state 1 |sec126,state 2 |sec125,state 0 |sec125,state 1 |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
|sec125,state 2 | |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ +
~ ~
~ [Records for indices 124 through 1 ~
~ ~
~ +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
~ |sec000,state 0 |sec000,state 1 |sec000,state 2 |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
```
The above is probably not helpful at all; here is a description in English.
Each image slot is partitioned into a sequence of flash sectors. If we were to
enumerate the sectors in a single slot, starting at 0, we would have a list of
sector indices. Since there are two image slots, each sector index would
correspond to a pair of sectors. For example, sector index 0 corresponds to
the first sector in the primary slot and the first sector in the secondary slot.
Finally, reverse the list of indices such that the list starts with index
`BOOT_MAX_IMG_SECTORS - 1` and ends with 0. The swap status region is a
representation of this reversed list.
During a swap operation, each sector index transitions through four separate
states:
```
0. primary slot: image 0, secondary slot: image 1, scratch: N/A
1. primary slot: image 0, secondary slot: N/A, scratch: image 1 (1->s, erase 1)
2. primary slot: N/A, secondary slot: image 0, scratch: image 1 (0->1, erase 0)
3. primary slot: image 1, secondary slot: image 0, scratch: N/A (s->0)
```
Each time a sector index transitions to a new state, the boot loader writes a
record to the swap status region. Logically, the boot loader only needs one
record per sector index to keep track of the current swap state. However, due
to limitations imposed by flash hardware, a record cannot be overwritten when
an index's state changes. To solve this problem, the boot loader uses three
records per sector index rather than just one.
Each sector-state pair is represented as a set of three records. The record
values map to the above four states as follows
```
| rec0 | rec1 | rec2
--------+------+------+------
state 0 | 0xff | 0xff | 0xff
state 1 | 0x01 | 0xff | 0xff
state 2 | 0x01 | 0x02 | 0xff
state 3 | 0x01 | 0x02 | 0x03
```
The swap status region can accommodate `BOOT_MAX_IMG_SECTORS` sector indices.
Hence, the size of the region, in bytes, is
`BOOT_MAX_IMG_SECTORS * min-write-size * 3`. The only requirement for the index
count is that it is great enough to account for a maximum-sized image
(i.e., at least as great as the total sector count in an image slot). If a
device's image slots have been configured with `BOOT_MAX_IMG_SECTORS: 128` and
use less than 128 sectors, the first record that gets written will be somewhere
in the middle of the region. For example, if a slot uses 64 sectors, the first
sector index that gets swapped is 63, which corresponds to the exact halfway
point within the region.
Note: since the scratch area only ever needs to record swapping of the last
sector, it uses at most min-write-size * 3 bytes for its own status area.
## [Reset Recovery](#reset-recovery)
If the boot loader resets in the middle of a swap operation, the two images may
be discontiguous in flash. Bootutil recovers from this condition by using the
image trailers to determine how the image parts are distributed in flash.
The first step is determine where the relevant swap status region is located.
Because this region is embedded within the image slots, its location in flash
changes during a swap operation. The below set of tables map image trailers
contents to swap status location. In these tables, the "source" field
indicates where the swap status region is located. In case of multi image boot
the images primary area and the single scratch area is always examined in pairs.
If swap status found on scratch area then it might not belong to the current
image. The swap_info field of swap status stores the corresponding image number.
If it does not match then "source: none" is returned.
```
| primary slot | scratch |
----------+--------------+--------------|
magic | Good | Any |
copy-done | 0x01 | N/A |
----------+--------------+--------------'
source: none |
----------------------------------------'
| primary slot | scratch |
----------+--------------+--------------|
magic | Good | Any |
copy-done | 0xff | N/A |
----------+--------------+--------------'
source: primary slot |
----------------------------------------'
| primary slot | scratch |
----------+--------------+--------------|
magic | Any | Good |
copy-done | Any | N/A |
----------+--------------+--------------'
source: scratch |
----------------------------------------'
| primary slot | scratch |
----------+--------------+--------------|
magic | Unset | Any |
copy-done | 0xff | N/A |
----------+--------------+--------------|
source: primary slot |
----------------------------------------+------------------------------+
This represents one of two cases: |
o No swaps ever (no status to read, so no harm in checking). |
o Mid-revert; status in the primary slot. |
For this reason we assume the primary slot as source, to trigger a |
check of the status area and find out if there was swapping under way. |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------'
```
If the swap status region indicates that the images are not contiguous, mcuboot
determines the type of swap operation that was interrupted by reading the `swap
info` field in the active image trailer and extracting the swap type from bits
0-3 then resumes the operation. In other words, it applies the procedure defined
in the previous section, moving image 1 into the primary slot and image 0 into
the secondary slot. If the boot status indicates that an image part is present
in the scratch area, this part is copied into the correct location by starting
at step e or step h in the area-swap procedure, depending on whether the part
belongs to image 0 or image 1.
After the swap operation has been completed, the boot loader proceeds as though
it had just been started.
## [Integrity Check](#integrity-check)
An image is checked for integrity immediately before it gets copied into the
primary slot. If the boot loader doesn't perform an image swap, then it can
perform an optional integrity check of the image in the primary slot if
`MCUBOOT_VALIDATE_PRIMARY_SLOT` is set, otherwise it doesn't perform an
integrity check.
During the integrity check, the boot loader verifies the following aspects of
an image:
* 32-bit magic number must be correct (`IMAGE_MAGIC`).
* Image must contain an `image_tlv_info` struct, identified by its magic
(`IMAGE_TLV_PROT_INFO_MAGIC` or `IMAGE_TLV_INFO_MAGIC`) exactly following
the firmware (`hdr_size` + `img_size`). If `IMAGE_TLV_PROT_INFO_MAGIC` is
found then after `ih_protect_tlv_size` bytes, another `image_tlv_info`
with magic equal to `IMAGE_TLV_INFO_MAGIC` must be present.
* Image must contain a SHA256 TLV.
* Calculated SHA256 must match SHA256 TLV contents.
* Image *may* contain a signature TLV. If it does, it must also have a
KEYHASH TLV with the hash of the key that was used to sign. The list of
keys will then be iterated over looking for the matching key, which then
will then be used to verify the image contents.
## [Security](#security)
As indicated above, the final step of the integrity check is signature
verification. The boot loader can have one or more public keys embedded in it
at build time. During signature verification, the boot loader verifies that an
image was signed with a private key that corresponds to the embedded KEYHASH
TLV.
For information on embedding public keys in the boot loader, as well as
producing signed images, see: [signed_images](signed_images.md).
If you want to enable and use encrypted images, see:
[encrypted_images](encrypted_images.md).
Note: Image encryption is not supported when the direct-xip or the ram-load
upgrade strategy is selected.
### [Using Hardware Keys for Verification](#hw-key-support)
By default, the whole public key is embedded in the bootloader code and its
hash is added to the image manifest as a KEYHASH TLV entry. As an alternative
the bootloader can be made independent of the keys by setting the
`MCUBOOT_HW_KEY` option. In this case the hash of the public key must be
provisioned to the target device and mcuboot must be able to retrieve the
key-hash from there. For this reason the target must provide a definition
for the `boot_retrieve_public_key_hash()` function which is declared in
`boot/bootutil/include/bootutil/sign_key.h`. It is also required to use
the `full` option for the `--public-key-format` imgtool argument in order to
add the whole public key (PUBKEY TLV) to the image manifest instead of its
hash (KEYHASH TLV). During boot the public key is validated before using it for
signature verification, mcuboot calculates the hash of the public key from the
TLV area and compares it with the key-hash that was retrieved from the device.
This way mcuboot is independent from the public key(s). The key(s) can be
provisioned any time and by different parties.
## [Protected TLVs](#protected-tlvs)
If the TLV area contains protected TLV entries, by beginning with a `struct
image_tlv_info` with a magic value of `IMAGE_TLV_PROT_INFO_MAGIC` then the
data of those TLVs must also be integrity and authenticity protected. Beyond
the full size of the protected TLVs being stored in the `image_tlv_info`,
the size of the protected TLVs together with the size of the `image_tlv_info`
struct itself are also saved in the `ih_protected_size` field inside the
header.
Whenever an image has protected TLVs the SHA256 has to be calculated over
not just the image header and the image but also the TLV info header and the
protected TLVs.
```
A +---------------------+
| Header | <- struct image_header
+---------------------+
| Payload |
+---------------------+
| TLV area |
| +-----------------+ | struct image_tlv_info with
| | TLV area header | | <- IMAGE_TLV_PROT_INFO_MAGIC (optional)
| +-----------------+ |
| | Protected TLVs | | <- Protected TLVs (struct image_tlv)
B | +-----------------+ |
| | TLV area header | | <- struct image_tlv_info with IMAGE_TLV_INFO_MAGIC
C | +-----------------+ |
| | SHA256 hash | | <- hash from A - B (struct image_tlv)
D | +-----------------+ |
| | Keyhash | | <- indicates which pub. key for sig (struct image_tlv)
| +-----------------+ |
| | Signature | | <- signature from C - D (struct image_tlv), only hash
| +-----------------+ |
+---------------------+
```
## [Dependency Check](#dependency-check)
MCUBoot can handle multiple firmware images. It is possible to update them
independently but in many cases it can be desired to be able to describe
dependencies between the images (e.g. to ensure API compliance and avoid
interoperability issues).
The dependencies between images can be described with additional TLV entries in
the protected TLV area after the end of an image. There can be more than one
dependency entry, but in practice if the platform only supports two individual
images then there can be maximum one entry which reflects to the other image.
At the phase of dependency check all aborted swaps are finalized if there were
any. During the dependency check the boot loader verifies whether the image
dependencies are all satisfied. If at least one of the dependencies of an image
is not fulfilled then the swap type of that image has to be modified
accordingly and the dependency check needs to be restarted. This way the number
of unsatisfied dependencies will decrease or remain the same. There is always at
least 1 valid configuration. In worst case, the system returns to the initial
state after dependency check.
For more information on adding dependency entries to an image,
see: [imgtool](imgtool.md).
## [Downgrade Prevention](#downgrade-prevention)
Downgrade prevention is a feature which enforces that the new image must have a
higher version/security counter number than the image it is replacing, thus
preventing the malicious downgrading of the device to an older and possibly
vulnerable version of its firmware.
### [SW Based Downgrade Prevention](#sw-downgrade-prevention)
During the software based downgrade prevention the image version numbers are
compared. This feature is enabled with the `MCUBOOT_DOWNGRADE_PREVENTION`
option. In this case downgrade prevention is only available when the
overwrite-based image update strategy is used (i.e. `MCUBOOT_OVERWRITE_ONLY`
is set).
### [HW Based Downgrade Prevention](#hw-downgrade-prevention)
Each signed image can contain a security counter in its protected TLV area, which
can be added to the image using the `-s` option of the [imgtool](imgtool.md) script.
During the hardware based downgrade prevention (alias rollback protection) the
new image's security counter will be compared with the currently active security
counter value which must be stored in a non-volatile and trusted component of
the device. It is beneficial to handle this counter independently from image
version number:
* It does not need to increase with each software release,
* It makes it possible to do software downgrade to some extent: if the
security counter has the same value in the older image then it is accepted.
It is an optional step of the image validation process and can be enabled with
the `MCUBOOT_HW_ROLLBACK_PROT` config option. When enabled, the target must
provide an implementation of the security counter interface defined in
`boot/bootutil/include/security_cnt.h`.
## [Measured boot and data sharing](#boot-data-sharing)
MCUBoot defines a mechanism for sharing boot status information (also known as
measured boot) and an interface for sharing application specific information
with the runtime software. If any of these are enabled the target must provide
a shared data area between the bootloader and runtime firmware and define the
following parameters:
```c
#define MCUBOOT_SHARED_DATA_BASE <area_base_addr>
#define MCUBOOT_SHARED_DATA_SIZE <area_size_in_bytes>
```
In the shared memory area all data entries are stored in a type-length-value
(TLV) format. Before adding the first data entry, the whole area is overwritten
with zeros and a TLV header is added at the beginning of the area during an
initialization phase. This TLV header contains a `tlv_magic` field with a value
of `SHARED_DATA_TLV_INFO_MAGIC` and a `tlv_tot_len` field which is indicating
the total length of shared TLV area including this header. The header is
followed by the the data TLV entries which are composed from a
`shared_data_tlv_entry` header and the data itself. In the data header there is
a `tlv_type` field which identifies the consumer of the entry (in the runtime
software) and specifies the subtype of that data item. More information about
the `tlv_type` field and data types can be found in the
`boot/bootutil/include/bootutil/boot_status.h` file. The type is followed by a
`tlv_len` field which indicates the size of the data entry in bytes, not
including the entry header. After this header structure comes the actual data.
```c
/** Shared data TLV header. All fields in little endian. */
struct shared_data_tlv_header {
uint16_t tlv_magic;
uint16_t tlv_tot_len; /* size of whole TLV area (including this header) */
};
/** Shared data TLV entry header format. All fields in little endian. */
struct shared_data_tlv_entry {
uint16_t tlv_type;
uint16_t tlv_len; /* TLV data length (not including this header). */
};
```
The measured boot can be enabled with the `MCUBOOT_MEASURED_BOOT` config option.
When enabled, the `--boot_record` argument of the imgtool script must also be
used during the image signing process to add a BOOT_RECORD TLV to the image
manifest. This TLV contains the following attributes/measurements of the
image in CBOR encoded format:
* Software type (role of the software component)
* Software version
* Signer ID (identifies the signing authority)
* Measurement value (hash of the image)
* Measurement type (algorithm used to calculate the measurement value)
The `sw_type` string that is passed as the `--boot_record` option's parameter
will be the value of the "Software type" attribute in the generated BOOT_RECORD
TLV. The target must also define the `MAX_BOOT_RECORD_SZ` macro which indicates
the maximum size of the CBOR encoded boot record in bytes.
During boot, MCUBoot will look for these TLVs (in case of multiple images) in
the manifests of the active images (the latest and validated) and copy the CBOR
encoded binary data to the shared data area. Preserving all these image
attributes from the boot stage for use by later runtime services (such as an
attestation service) is known as a measured boot.
Setting the `MCUBOOT_DATA_SHARING` option enables the sharing of application
specific data using the same shared data area as for the measured boot. For
this, the target must provide a definition for the `boot_save_shared_data()`
function which is declared in `boot/bootutil/include/bootutil/boot_record.h`.
The `boot_add_data_to_shared_area()` function can be used for adding new TLV
entries to the shared data area.
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